The neurobiology of craving: Implications for the understanding and treatment of addiction.

Science and Human Behavior

1953 • 9,622 citations

The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics

1976 • 8,675 citations

The organization of behavior

1988 • 8,668 citations

The Logic of Scientific Discovery

2013 • 8,086 citations

Stereotaxic Mapping of the Monoamine Pathways in the Rat Brain*

1971 • 3,816 citations

Positive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of septal area and other regions of rat brain.

1954 • 3,047 citations

Handbook of Psychopharmacology

1988 • 2,778 citations

A psychomotor stimulant theory of addiction.

1987 • 2,704 citations

Physiology and Behavior

1973 • 2,271 citations

Perception and the Conditioned Reflex

1966 • 2,147 citations

Enduring changes in brain and behavior produced by chronic amphetamine administration: A review and evaluation of animal models of amphetamine psychosis

1986 • 2,110 citations

Amphetamine and apomorphine responses in the rat following 6-OHDA lesions of the nucleus accumbens septi and corpus striatum

1975 • 1,741 citations

[Drug addiction and drug abuse].

1969 • 1,466 citations

Endogenous pain control mechanisms: Review and hypothesis

1978 • 1,217 citations

Catecholamine innervation of the basal forebrain IV. Topography of the dopamine projection to the basal forebrain and neostriatum

1978 • 1,160 citations

Role of unconditioned and conditioned drug effects in the self-administration of opiates and stimulants.

1984 • 1,060 citations

Reinforcement, expectancy, and learning.

1972 • 1,057 citations

Neuroleptics and operant behavior: The anhedonia hypothesis

1982 • 1,021 citations

Amphetamines and related compounds

1971 • 979 citations

The relation between fear induced by novel stimulation and exploratory drive.

1955 • 900 citations

Self-administration of psychoactive substances by the monkey

1969 • 807 citations

Tolerance of locus coeruleus neurones to morphine and suppression of withdrawal response by clonidine

1978 • 794 citations

Low doses of ethanol activate dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area

1985 • 788 citations

Catecholamine theories of reward: A critical review

1978 • 766 citations

Extinction and recovery of cocaine self-administration following 6-hydroxydopamine lesions of the nucleus accumbens

1980 • 736 citations

On the role of ascending catecholaminergic systems in intravenous self-administration of cocaine

1977 • 733 citations

Central nervous system mechanisms of analgesia

1976 • 710 citations

The Uptake and Storage of Noradrenaline in Sympathetic Nerves

1967 • 706 citations

Methods of Assessing the Reinforcing Properties of Abused Drugs

1987 • 684 citations

Antagonism of Stimulation-Produced Analgesia by Naloxone, a Narcotic Antagonist

1976 • 664 citations

Narcotic analgetics: CNS sites and mechanisms of action as revealed by intracerebral injection techniques

1977 • 656 citations

Late prenatal ontogeny of central monoamine neurons in the rat: Fluorescence histochemical observations

1973 • 651 citations

Self-inhibition by Dopaminergic Neurons

1975 • 645 citations

Neuroleptic-Induced "Anhedonia" in Rats: Pimozide Blocks Reward Quality of Food

1978 • 643 citations

New concepts in cocaine addiction: The dopamine depletion hypothesis

1985 • 608 citations

Brainstem Control of Saccadic Eye Movements

1985 • 583 citations

Heroin and cocaine intravenous self-administration in rats: Mediation by separate neural systems

1982 • 560 citations

A motivational view of learning, performance, and behavior modification.

1974 • 559 citations

Pharmacology and Therapeutics.

1886 • 552 citations

Increased Lever Pressing for Amphetamine After Pimozide in Rats: Implications for a Dopamine Theory of Reward

1975 • 536 citations

Psychomotor function and psychoactive drugs.

1980 • 535 citations

Autoradiographic evidence for nicotine receptors on nigrostriatal and mesolimbic dopaminergic neurons

1985 • 527 citations

Intracranial self-administration of morphine into the ventral tegmental area in rats

1981 • 497 citations

Cortical Dopaminergic Involvement in Cocaine Reinforcement

1983 • 491 citations

Blockade of cocaine reinforcement in rats with the dopamine receptor blocker pimozide, but not with the noradrenergic blockers phentolamine or phenoxybenzamine.

1977 • 490 citations

Alcohol Intoxication and Withdrawal

1976 • 481 citations

Studies on the distinction between uptake inhibition and release of [3H]dopamine in rat brain tissue slices

1975 • 473 citations

A biological theory of reinforcement.

1967 • 472 citations

The biology of social attachments: opiates alleviate separation distress.

1978 • 465 citations

Destruction of dopaminergic nerve terminals in nucleus accumbens: Effect on d-amphetamine self-administration

1979 • 460 citations

Disruption of cocaine self-administration following 6-hydroxydopamine lesions of the ventral tegmental area in rats

1982 • 451 citations

The role of reward pathways in the development of drug dependence

1987 • 439 citations

Electrophysiological evidence for excitation of rat ventral tegmental area dopamine neurons by morphine

1984 • 424 citations

A Medical Treatment for Diacetylmorphine (Heroin) Addiction

1966 • 414 citations

Nicotinic effects on the firing pattern of midbrain dopamine neurons

1986 • 399 citations

Catecholamine systems as the neural substrate for intracranial self-stimulation: a hypothesis

1974 • 383 citations

Nomenclature and classification of drug- and alcohol-related problems: a WHO Memorandum.

1981 • 373 citations

Self-injection of amphetamine directly into the brain

1983 • 373 citations

Attenuation of intravenous amphetamine reinforcement by central dopamine blockade in rats

1976 • 371 citations

The basal ganglia and the locomotor regions

1986 • 370 citations

Enkephalin action on the mesolimbic system: a dopamine-dependent and a dopamine-independent increase in locomotor activity.

1983 • 355 citations

The effect of morphine applied locally to mesencephalic dopamine cell bodies on spontaneous motor activity in the rat

1979 • 354 citations

A portrait of the substrate for self-stimulation.

1981 • 344 citations

Use and Misuse of the Concept of Craving by Alcohol, Tobacco, and Drug Researchers

1987 • 340 citations

Reinforcing effects of morphine microinjection into the ventral tegmental area

1980 • 334 citations

The role of forebrain dopamine systems in amphetamine induced stereotyped behavior in the rat

1974 • 330 citations

Action of drugs of abuse on brain reward systems

1980 • 330 citations

Effects of morphine and naloxone on separation distress and approach attachment: Evidence for opiate mediation of social affect

1978 • 321 citations

Pimozide-induced extinction of intracranial self-stimulation: response patterns rule out motor or performance deficits

1976 • 320 citations

Two Types of Conditioned Reflex: A Reply to Konorski and Miller

1937 • 319 citations

Both Positive Reinforcement and Conditioned Aversion from Amphetamine and from Apomorphine in Rats

1976 • 307 citations

Influence of superior colliculus on cat neck motoneurons.

1971 • 294 citations

Drugs and Reinforcement Mechanisms: A Critical Review of the Catecholamine Theory

1978 • 293 citations

Pleasure Centers in the Brain

1956 • 280 citations

Multiplicative interaction between narcotic agonisms expressed at spinal and supraspinal sites of antinociceptive action as revealed by concurrent intrathecal and intracerebroventricular injections of morphine.

1980 • 272 citations

Drug reinstatement of heroin-reinforced responding in the rat

1983 • 266 citations

Anatomically Distinct Opiate Receptor Fields Mediate Reward and Physical Dependence

1984 • 265 citations

Intracranial self-stimulation in relation to the ascending dopaminergic systems of the midbrain: A moveable electrode mapping study

1980 • 258 citations

Brain reward circuitry: Four circuit elements “wired” in apparent series

1984 • 257 citations

Reinforcing effects of morphine in the nucleus accumbens

1982 • 254 citations

The cerebral ventricles as the avenue for the dipsogenic action of intracranial angiotensin

1975 • 250 citations

Stimulation-produced Analgesia: Development of Tolerance and Cross-Tolerance to Morphine

1975 • 250 citations

Cigarette smoking as a dependence process.

1979 • 241 citations

Reinforcing effects of brain microinjections of morphine revealed by conditioned place preference

1982 • 238 citations

Self-administration of methionine enkephalin into the nucleus accumbens

1984 • 238 citations

Disruption of cocaine and heroin self-administration following kainic acid lesions of the nucleus accumbens

1985 • 232 citations

Neuroleptic-induced attenuation of brain stimulation reward in rats.

1978 • 229 citations

Development of Scales Based on Patterns of Drug Effects, Using the Addiction Research Center Inventory (ARCI)

1966 • 226 citations

Reinstatement of heroin and cocaine self-administration behavior in the rat by intracerebral application of morphine in the ventral tegmental area

1984 • 219 citations

Physical Dependence of Opiate-Like Peptides

1976 • 219 citations

Superior colliculus connections with the extraocular motor nuclei in the cat

1978 • 212 citations

Cognitive science and behaviourism

1985 • 209 citations

Neuroanatomical focus for morphine and enkaphalin-induced hypermotility

1977 • 209 citations

Interactions between d-Ala-Met-enkephalin, A10 dopaminergic neurones, and spontaneous behaviour in the rat

1980 • 203 citations

Intravenous self-administration of dopamine receptor agonists by rhesus monkeys.

1984 • 203 citations

Intracranial chemical injection and behavior: A critical review

1972 • 198 citations

Ascending Endorphin Inhibition of Distress Vocalization

1981 • 194 citations

The tobacco withdrawal syndrome.

1979 • 190 citations

Pimozide-induced extinction in rats: Stimulus control of responding rules out motor deficit

1979 • 186 citations

Behavioral methods for inferring anatomical linkage between rewarding brain stimulation sites.

1980 • 185 citations

Receptor binding and pharmacological activity of opiates in the guinea-pig intestine.

1975 • 182 citations

Amphetamine-type reinforcement by dopaminergic agonists in the rat

1978 • 182 citations

Reinstatement of Drug-Taking Behavior as a Method of Assessing Incentive Motivational Properties of Drugs

1987 • 182 citations

Attenuation by haloperidol of place preference conditioning using food reinforcement

1982 • 179 citations

Evidence implicating descending fibers in self-stimulation of the medial forebrain bundle

1986 • 179 citations

Love and Addiction

1975 • 178 citations

EFFECTS OF d‐ AND l‐AMPHETAMINE ON LOCAL CEREBRAL GLUCOSE UTILIZATION IN THE CONSCIOUS RAT¹

1979 • 178 citations

Major attenuation of food reward with performance-sparing doses of pimozide in the rat.

1978 • 178 citations

Blockade of nucleus accumbens opiate receptors attenuates intravenous heroin reward in the rat

1985 • 175 citations

The anhedonia hypothesis: Mark III

1985 • 169 citations

Electrophysiological actions of nicotine on substantia nigra single units

1985 • 169 citations

Reinforcing properties of cocaine in the medial prefrontal cortex: Primary action on presynaptic dopaminergic terminals

1986 • 169 citations

Lateral hypothalamic electrical stimulation: Does it make animals ‘hungry’?

1974 • 168 citations

d-Amphetamine-induced depression of central dopamine neurons: Evidence for mediation by both autoreceptors and a striato-nigral feedback pathway

1978 • 165 citations

Increased food intake after opioid microinjections into nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area of rat

1986 • 160 citations

Pimozide decreases the positive reinforcing effect of sham fed sucrose in the rat

1985 • 155 citations

152 Possible role of enzyme inhibition and repression in drug tolerance and addiction

1961 • 152 citations

Sensitization occurs to the locomotor effects of morphine and the specific μ opioid receptor agonist, DAGO, administered repeatedly to the ventral tegmental area but not to the nucleus accumbens

1987 • 152 citations

Reinforcement Properties of Morphine, Cocaine, and SPA as a Function of Unit Dose

1968 • 150 citations

Clinical trials with amphetamine-blocking drugs.

1972 • 147 citations

Self-injection of apomorphine in the rat: Positive reinforcement by a dopamine receptor stimulant

1974 • 147 citations

Role of noradrenergic and dopaminergic processes in amphetamine self-administration

1976 • 144 citations

Blockade of intravenous amphetamine euphoria in man

1971 • 140 citations

The behavioural effects of enkephalin analogues injected into the ventral tegmental area and globus pallidus

1981 • 137 citations

Neuropharmacological assessment of cocaine self-administration into the medial prefrontal cortex

1986 • 136 citations

FEEDING AND SELF‐STIMULATION*

1969 • 136 citations

Opioid blockade and social comfort in chicks

1980 • 135 citations

EXPERIMENTAL COCAINE ADDICTION

1929 • 133 citations

Brain reward circuitry: A case for separate systems

1984 • 130 citations

Neuroanatomical boundaries of the reward-relevant opiate-receptor field in the ventral tegmental area as mapped by the conditioned place preference method in rats

1987 • 130 citations

Effects of dopamine receptor blockade on alimentary behaviors: Home cage food consumption, magazine training, operant acquisition, and performance

1979 • 128 citations

Psychiatria, neurologia, neurochirurgia

1973 • 127 citations

On emotions, needs, and our archaic brain.

1975 • 119 citations

Extinction and dopamine receptor blockade after intermittent reinforcement training: Failure to observe functional equivalence

1980 • 118 citations

Does pimozide block the reinforcing effect of brain stimulation?

1982 • 117 citations

Pimozide-induced suppression of responding: Evidence against a block of food reward

1980 • 117 citations

Parametric analysis of brain stimulation reward in the rat: I. The transient process and the memory-containing process.

1974 • 115 citations

Sites of action of morphine involved in the development of physical dependence in rats

1976 • 112 citations

Conditioned Drug Effects

1987 • 109 citations

Brain sites of precipitated abstinence in morphine-dependent rats.

1973 • 108 citations

Dissociation of d-amphetamine-induced locomotor activity and stereotyped behaviour by lesions of the superior colliculus

1980 • 106 citations

Haloperidol induces a partial reinforcement extinction effect in rats: Implications for a dopamine involvement in food reward

1986 • 106 citations

Separation of inhibiting and stimulating effects of morphine on self-stimulation behaviour by intracerebral microinjections

1976 • 106 citations

Catecholaminergic mechanisms of reinforcement: Direct assessment by drug self-administration

1977 • 102 citations

The effects of pimozide on the consumption of a palatable saccharin-glucose solution in the rat

1981 • 101 citations

Involvement of the ventral tegmental dopamine system in opioid and psychomotor stimulant reinforcement.

1986 • 101 citations

Reward produced by microinjection of (d-Ala2),Met5-enkephalinamide into the ventral tegmental area

1982 • 100 citations

Supersensitivity and Dependence

1968 • 100 citations

Is the dopaminergic mesocorticolimbic system necessary for intracranial self-stimulation?

1979 • 100 citations

Intravenous self-administration of cocaine and norcocaine by dogs

1980 • 100 citations

Amphetamine stereotypy: the influence of environmental factors and prepotent behavioral patterns on its topography and development.

1975 • 99 citations

Pimozide attenuates lever pressing for water reinforcement in rats

1981 • 97 citations

Dopaminergic mediation of reward produced by direct injection of enkephalin into the ventral tegmental area of the rat

1983 • 95 citations

Morphine injected into the habenula and dorsal posteromedial thalamus produces analgesia in the formalin test

1985 • 94 citations

Pimozide attenuates free feeding: Best scores analysis reveals a motivational deficit

1984 • 93 citations

Ventral tegmental site of opiate reward: Antagonism by a hydrophilic opiate receptor blocker

1983 • 91 citations

The pharmacology of cocaine.

1984 • 89 citations

Comparative Aspects of Tolerance to, and Dependence on, Alcohol, Barbiturates and Opiates

1977 • 82 citations

Chronic neuroleptic treatment and mesolimbic dopamine denervation induce behavioural supersensitivity to opiates

1985 • 80 citations

An analysis of behavioural effects produced by drug‐induced changes of dopaminergic neurotransmission in the brain

1979 • 80 citations

Snout contact fixation, climbing and gnawing during apomorphine stereotypy in rats from two substrains

1982 • 75 citations

XVII. Pharmacological denervation supersensitivity in the central nervous system: a theory of physical dependence.

1968 • 74 citations

Cocaine: Pharmacology, Effects, and Treatment of Abuse

1985 • 67 citations

Pharmacology of Clonidine

1980 • 66 citations

The incentive of brain-stimulation reward.

1969 • 66 citations

A partial reinforcement extinction effect in water-reinforced rats intermittently treated with haloperidol

1986 • 62 citations

Alcohol Dependence and Opiate Dependence: Lack of Relationship in Mice

1971 • 61 citations

The effects of low doses of morphine on the activity of dopamine-containing cells and on behavior

1982 • 61 citations

Strategies for studying the neurochemical substrates of drug reinforcement in rodents

1983 • 61 citations

Actions of drugs of abuse on brain reward systems: A reconsideration with specific attention to alcohol

1982 • 60 citations

Intracranial self-stimulation: mapping against the lateral boundaries of the dopaminergic cells of the substantia nigra

1981 • 60 citations

Intracerebral self-administration of amphetamine by rhesus monkeys

1981 • 59 citations

A spinal opioid synapse mediates the interaction of spinal and brain stem sites in morphine analgesia

1982 • 59 citations

Similarity of morphine abstinence signs to thermoregulatory behaviour

1974 • 50 citations

Regional sensitivity of the rat brain to the inhibitory effects of morphine on wet shake behavior.

1975 • 48 citations

Enkephalin Analogs and Physical Dependence

1980 • 47 citations

Pimozide blocks reinforcement but not priming from MFB stimulation in the rat

1982 • 46 citations

Contralateral circling induced by tegmental morphine: Anatomical localization, pharmacological specificity, and phenomenology

1985 • 46 citations

Chlorpromazine and pimozide alter reinforcement efficacy and motor performance

1986 • 45 citations

Anatomical correlates of morphine-withdrawal syndrome: Differential participation of structures located within the limbic system and striatum

1981 • 45 citations

The dopaminergic mediation of a sweet reward in normal and VMH hyperphagic rats

1982 • 45 citations

Chronic treatment with five different neuroleptics elicits behavioral supersensitivity to opiate infusion into the nucleus accumbens

1986 • 45 citations

Pharmacological aspects of shaking behavior produced by TRH, AG-3-5, and morphine withdrawal.

1981 • 43 citations

Concurrent intracranial self-stimulation and amphetamine self-administration in rats

1977 • 43 citations

Behavior and histopathological findings during chronic methedrine intoxication.

1970 • 39 citations

Localization of the reward-relevant opiate receptors.

1982 • 38 citations

The role of the dopaminergic projections in MFB self-stimulation

1986 • 38 citations

Circling from intracranial morphine applied to the ventral tegmental area in rats

1983 • 36 citations

Opposite effects of ventral tegmental and periaqueductal gray morphine injections on lateral hypothalamic stimulation-induced feeding

1986 • 35 citations

Dissociation of the rewarding and physical dependence-producing properties of morphine.

1983 • 32 citations

The dopamine anhedonia hypothesis: A pharmacological phrenology

1982 • 31 citations

Human Effects: An Overview

1980 • 28 citations

Differential effects of intrafrontocortical microinjections of dopamine agonists and antagonists on circling behavior of rats

1985 • 27 citations

Apomorphine self-injection is not affected by alpha-methylparatyrosine treatment: Support for dopaminergic reward

1976 • 25 citations

Amphetamine and noradrenergic reward pathways

1973 • 21 citations

Facilitory and Inhibitory Effects of Nucleus Accumbens Amphetamine on Feeding

1988 • 19 citations

Clinical utility of clonidine in opiate withdrawal: a study of 100 patients.

1981 • 16 citations

Circling from unilateral VTA morphine: Direction is controlled by environmental stimuli

1986 • 15 citations

Morphine potentiates feeding via the opiate reinforcement mechanism.

1986 • 11 citations

The modulation of rewarding systems in the animal brain by amphetamine, morphine and apomorphine

1976 • 11 citations

Some thoughts about opiopeptins, peptides with opiate-like activity

1983 • 8 citations

On the generality of the anhedonia hypothesis

1982 • 3 citations

Discussion: Pavlovian Conference on Higher Nervous Activity. III. Deviance and drugs.

1961 • 2 citations

Time for a new synthesis of hedonia mechanisms: Interaction of multiple and interdependent reinforcer systems

1982 • 1 citations